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19th Century Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India
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Nature and Impact
- Overall Significance: A period of significant cultural and social revival.
- Guiding Principles: Based on rationalism and scientific temper.
- Result: Credited with the modernization of India.
- Social Reach:
- Primary Influence: Intellectuals, urban upper castes, and liberal princes.
- The educated Hindu middle class was the first group influenced by Western ideas.
- Exclusion: The poor ordinary classes were largely excluded.
Major Movements and Personalities
A. Brahmo Samaj & Associated Societies
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Founder | Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Dwarkanath Tagore. |
| Founded | As Brahmo Sabha on August 20, 1828, in Kolkata. |
| Core Beliefs | Strict monotheism; opposition to idol worship, polytheism, and priestly domination. |
| Social Reforms | Protested against the Sati system, child marriage, and idolatry. |
| Stance on Education | Strongly supported the introduction of Western education and sciences. |
| Key Figures | Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dwarkanath Tagore, Devendranath Tagore, Keshav Chandra Sen. |
| Precursor Society | Atmiya Sabha (1815): First society by R.R. Roy to promote monotheism. |
| Associated Societies | • Tatvabodhini Sabha (1839): Founded by Devendranath Tagore to propagate Roy’s ideas. • Calcutta Unitarian Committee: Founded by R.R. Roy, D. Tagore, and William Adam. • Tabernacle of New Dispensation: Established by Keshav Chandra Sen. • Indian Reform Association (1870): Established by Keshav Chandra Sen (he became its president). |
| Splits | • 1865/66 Split: After Devendranath Tagore removed Keshav Chandra Sen as Acharya. – Adi Brahmo Samaj: Led by Devendranath Tagore. – Bharatiya/Neo Brahmo Samaj: Led by Keshav Chandra Sen. • 1878 Split: Led to the formation of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj by Anand Mohan Bose and Shivnath Shastri. |
B. Arya Samaj
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Founder | Swami Dayanand Saraswati (Original name: Mool Shankar Tiwari). |
| Founded | April 7, 1875, in Mumbai. Headquarters established in Lahore (1877). |
| Core Principle | “Back to the Vedas”. Promoted the doctrine of the infallibility of the Vedas. |
| Social Reforms | Campaigned against child marriage and the caste system. |
| Key Initiatives | • Started the Shuddhi Movement for reconversion to Hinduism. • Split (1892-93): – Anti-Western Faction (Gurukul): Led by Swami Shraddhanand. Established Gurukul in 1902. – Pro-Western Faction (D.A.V.): Led by Lala Lajpat Rai & Hansraj. Established D.A.V. College. |
| Impact | Gave self-confidence and self-reliance to Hindus and undermined belief in the superiority of the White race. |
| Nationalist Ideas | • First to use the term Swaraj. • Accepted Hindi as the national language. • Advocated for Swadeshi. • Coined: “India is only for the Indians” and “Good Government is no substitute for Self-Government”. |
C. Prarthana Samaj
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Founder | Dr. Atmaram Pandurang. |
| Founded | 1867 in Bombay. Inspired by Keshav Chandra Sen (Brahmo Samaj). |
| Key Leader | Mahadev Govind Ranade (Chief director in Maharashtra). |
| Objectives | Opposing the caste system, raising the marriage age, promoting widow remarriage, and encouraging women’s education. |
| Initiatives | • Widow Remarriage Association (Vidhwa Ashram Sangh): Started by Ranade and D.K. Karve to educate widows. |
D. Ramakrishna Mission
| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Spiritual Guru | Ramakrishna Paramahansa (Wife: Sharada Devi). A mystic who emphasized multiple paths to God. |
| Founder | Swami Vivekananda (Disciple of Ramakrishna). |
| Founded | 1897. Headquarters at Belur, Kolkata. |
| Role | Promoted Neo-Hinduism globally. Not a political mission, but helped develop a spirit of patriotism. |
| Global Event | Represented India at the World Parliament of Religions, Chicago (1893). |
| Key Works | Jnana Yoga, Karma Yoga, Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga. |
E. Other Reform Movements & Societies
| Society/Movement | Founder | Year | Place | Key Details |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Satyashodhak Samaj | Jyotiba Phule | 1873 | Pune | Anti-caste movement for upliftment of Shudras/Ati-Shudras. Key Publication: Gulamgiri (1872). Savitribai Phule led women’s section. |
| Dev Samaj | Shiv Narayan Agnihotri | 1887 | Lahore | Previously a Brahmo. Scripture: Devshastra. Popularity declined after 1913. |
| Radha Swami Satsang | Shivdayal Sahab (Tulsiram) | 1861 | ||
| Theosophical Society | Madame H.P. Blavatsky & Col. H.S. Alcott | 1875 (NY) 1882 (India) |
Adyar, Chennai | Annie Besant was a prominent leader who joined in 1889 and arrived in India in 1893. |
| Indian National Social Conference | M.G. Ranade & Raghunath Rao | 1887 | Addressed social issues nationally. Held sessions alongside the INC. | |
| Servants of India Society | Gopal Krishna Gokhale | 1905 | First secular organization for national service and rural welfare. |
F. Orthodox Opposition Groups
| Group/Publication | Founder/Leader | Year | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dharma Sabha | Raja Radhakant Deb | 1830 | To oppose reforms like the abolition of Sati. |
| Samachar Chandrika | Bhavani Charan Bandyopadhyay | 1822 | Newspaper started to oppose the ideas of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. |
Key Reformers and Their Titles
| Reformer | Titles & Key Facts |
|---|---|
| Raja Ram Mohan Roy | • ‘Father of the Indian Renaissance’ • ‘Father of Modern India’ • ‘First Modern Man’ • ‘Paigambar of Indian Nationalism’ • ‘Bridge between past and future’ / ‘Yugadoot’ • Adorned with the title ‘Raja’ by Mughal Emperor Akbar II (1830). • Died on September 27, 1833, in Stapleton, England, from meningitis. |
| Keshav Chandra Sen | • Appointed Acharya of the Brahmo Samaj by Devendranath Tagore. |
| Devendranath Tagore | • Credited with giving the Brahmo Samaj a theistic direction. |
| Mahadev Govind Ranade | • “Father of the cultural renaissance in western India”. |
| Gopal Hari Deshmukh | • Popularly known as ‘Lokahitvadi’. Wrote ‘Lokahitawadinchi Shatapatre’ (108 articles on reform). |
| Swami Vivekananda | • Regarded as the best representative of Neo-Hinduism. • Described as the ‘spiritual father of the modern nationalist movement’ and a ‘Patriot Saint’. |
| Swami Dayanand Saraswati | • Known as the ‘Martin Luther of India’. |
| Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar | • Famously stated he had “no time to think about God as there was too much work to be done on earth.” |
Legislative Reforms & Acts
| Act | Year | Provisions & Key Figures |
|---|---|---|
| Sati Prohibition Act | 1829 | Banned the practice of Sati. Declared illegal by Lord William Bentinck. |
| Act V | 1843 | Made the practice of slavery illegal in India. |
| Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act | 1856 | Legalized the remarriage of Hindu widows. Drafted by Lord Dalhousie, passed under Lord Canning. Campaigned for by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. |
| Native Marriage Act | 1872 | Also called the Brahmo Marriage Act. Set min. age: 14 for girls, 18 for boys. Legalized inter-caste marriage and banned polygamy. Associated with Keshab Chandra Sen. |
| Age of Consent Act | 1891 | Raised the age of consent, forbidding marriage of girls below 12. Result of campaigns by Behramji M. Malabari. |
| Child Marriage Restraint Act (Sharda Act) | 1929 | Set min. age: 14 for girls, 18 for boys (later amended to 18 for girls, 21 for boys). |
Miscellaneous Facts & Corrections
- Jury Act of 1826: Considered discriminatory as it stated only Christians could be jurors in trials involving Christians. Raja Ram Mohan Roy strongly opposed it.
- Language Proficiency: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Dayanand Saraswati were all proficient in Sanskrit.
- Women’s Education: Jyotiba Phule is a pioneer; opened the first school for girls in 1848.
- Widow Remarriage in Maharashtra: Campaign led by Vishnu Parashuram Pandit (founded society in 1850).
- Labor: The Hali System was a system of bonded labor.
- Protests: The Tarkeshwar Movement (1924) in Bengal was against corruption by temple priests (Mahants).
- Temple Entry: Nadars demanded temple entry rights, leading to a riot in Tirunelveli (1899).
- Untouchability: Bal Gangadhar Tilak vehemently opposed it.
- Place of Birth: Mahatma Gandhi was born in Porbandar.
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