Mughal Administration Notes with PDF

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Mughal Administration: Overview

1. Administrative Divisions (Territorial Structure)

Empire Structure: The Mughal Empire was a military state whose central government depended on its military power.
Ascending Order of Divisions:
- Village: The smallest unit.
- Pargana (or Mahal): A sub-district formed by several villages.
- Sarkar: A district, formed by subdivided Parganas.
- Suba: A province, formed by subdivided Sarkars.
Details of Divisions:
- Suba (Province):
  - The number of Subas started at 12 under Akbar.
  - This number increased to 18 and finally reached 20 during Aurangzeb’s rule.
- Sarkar (District):
  - The official term for a district.
- Chakla:
  - A territorial administrative unit between the Subah and Parganah, used notably in Bengal and Oudh.
  - It was a district-level division and not identical to a Sarkar.

2. Administrative Officials & Their Roles

Central & Provincial Officials:
- Mir Bakshi:
  - Head of the army (military administration).
  - Known as the Pay Master General.
  - Duties: Supervising land revenue officials and army salaries, gathering intelligence, recommending military appointments/promotions.
- Muhtasib:
  - Officer in charge of public morals.
  - Enforced Islamic law (Sharia), acting as both a censor and a judge.
- Diwan: The revenue chief of a province.
- Vakianavis: Officer who maintained a proper list of main events and royal decrees (firmans).
District (Sarkar) Level Officials:
Every Sarkar had a set of main officers, including:
- Faujdar (military officer)
- Amalguzar (revenue collector)
- Qazi (judge)
- Kotwal (maintained law and order in towns)
- Bitiqhi (clerk/accountant)
- Khajandar (weigher)
- Desai (a revenue collector, a term also used in the Maratha context)
Financial Officials:
- Diwan-i-Tan: Officer in charge of looking after Jagirs and salaries.
- Mustarfi: Officer who examined the income and expenditure of the State.
- Mushrif: Officer who looked after the general office.
Other Appointees:
- Physicians: Niccolo Manucci, an Italian traveler, was appointed as a physician in the Mughal service in 1653.

3. The Mansabdari System

Purpose & Nature:
- Introduced by Akbar.
- It was the backbone of the Mughal military and civil administration.
- Its primary purpose was to ensure a clean and efficient administration.
- It formed the official nobility of the state.
- Mansabdars were not hereditary officials; they were directly appointed, promoted, demoted, or dismissed by the emperor.
- Not all Mansabdars were military officers; many held high civil posts.
Rank and Designation:
- A Mansab denoted the rank and status of an official.
- There were 33 divisions/classes of Mansabdars.
- The rank was dual:
  - Zat: Personal rank and salary.
  - Sawar: Number of cavalrymen one had to maintain.
  - The Sawar rank could NOT exceed the Zat rank.
- Mashrut Rank: A temporary, conditional increase in Sawar rank granted in special circumstances (e.g., difficult terrain, rebel threats).
Salary & Responsibilities:
- Mansabdars received their salary from the Diwan office.
- They were responsible for both civil and military duties.
- From their salary, they had to maintain a specified number of horses, elephants, camels, and transport.

4. Mughal Army Composition

Ahadis:
- Elite, high-quality troopers.
- Key characteristics:
  - They offered their services singly (individually).
  - They did not attach themselves to any chief.
  - They had the emperor as their immediate colonel (were directly under imperial command).

5. Mughal Economy & Revenue

Principal Source of Income:
- Land Revenue was the principal source of state income.
- Core Principle: Peasants had to pay a tax on their agricultural surplus (produce beyond their subsistence needs) to the state.
Revenue Vocabulary & Systems:
- Maal: The term for Land Revenue in Mughal administrative vocabulary.
- Madad-i-Maash: A tax-free revenue grant (free land) given to learned and religious persons to promote unity and support institutions.
- Bantai: A system of calculating revenue by dividing the crop between the state and the farmers. Introduced by Sher Shah Suri.
- Jarib: A measuring rod used for land measurement for taxation purposes. It was not a type of tax.
Land Assignments:
- Jagirdar vs. Zamindar:
  - Jagirdar: Held land assignments (Jagirs) from which they collected revenue in lieu of salary. Their assignments were not hereditary and they could be transferred.
  - Zamindar: Local hereditary landlords with revenue collection rights, crucial to the agrarian system.

6. Mughal Currency (Coinage)

System: The currency system was tri-metallic, using three metals:
- Gold: Mohur
- Silver: Rupee
- Copper: Daam (the chief copper coin)
State Accounts: The state income and expenditure were calculated in Dams.
Regulation: Akbar, like Sher Shah Suri before him, regulated the state’s currency.
Special Coins: Emperor Akbar issued coins featuring figures of Rama and Sita with the Devanagari legend ‘Rama-Siya’. These coins were often decorated and came in round, square, and mihrab (arch) shapes.

7. Mughal Society & Culture

Prohibition:
- Tobacco was introduced to India by the Portuguese in 1605.
- Mughal Emperor Jahangir, noticing its harmful effects, prohibited the use of tobacco in 1617.
Public Works:
- Irrigation: The Shahab Nahr canal was constructed during Akbar’s reign by restoring the older Rajabwah canal built by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. It was used for irrigation.

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