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Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization Notes with PDF

By October 4, 2025 Ancient History 0 Comments

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Overview of the Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization

1. Nature, Classification & Context

  • Human Society & Civilization
    • Human society is considered unique due to its dependence on the economy, which is a major determinant of social change.
  • Classification of Historical Ages
    • Proto-historic Age: A period where writing was known but remains undeciphered.
    • The Indus Valley Civilization is classified as Proto-historic for this reason.
  • Comparative Classification of Indian Societies
    • Indus Valley Civilization: Urban
    • Rigvedic Society: Pastoral
    • Later Vedic Society: Agrarian
    • Medieval Period: Landlordism
  • Global Context
    • One of the three oldest ancient civilizations, alongside Egypt (Nile River) and Mesopotamia.
    • Sumerian (Mesopotamian) civilization was the first to develop a proper writing system (cuneiform).

2. Origin, Discovery, and Theories

  • Discovery
    • First evidence discovered at Harappa, hence the name Harappan Civilization.
    • Primary source of knowledge is archaeological excavations.
    • Alexander Cunningham first excavated Harappa (1853, 1856) but failed to recognize its significance.
    • Major excavations were overseen by Sir John Marshall (Director-General of ASI).
  • Key Archaeologists & Their Sites
    • Daya Ram Sahni: Excavated Harappa (1921-1925).
    • Rakhal Das Banerjee: Excavated Mohenjodaro (1922).
    • E.J.H. Mackay: Excavated Chanhudaro (1935-36), discovered a bead-making factory.
    • S.R. Rao: Discovered and excavated Lothal (1954).
    • R.S. Bisht: Excavated Dholavira.
    • N.G. Majumdar: Worked at Chanhudaro and Kaushambi.
    • B.B. Lal: Excavated Hastinapur.
    • J.P. Joshi: Discovered Surkotada.
    • Not Associated: V.A. Smith (a historian, not an excavator).
  • Precursor Site
    • Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) provides the earliest evidence of animal domestication and agriculture in the subcontinent.
  • Theories of Origin
    • E.J.H. Mackay & Mortimer Wheeler: Supported theory of migration from Sumer/Western Asia.
    • Amalananda Ghosh & M. Rafique Mughal: Argued for indigenous development from Pre-Harappan cultures in the Ravi river region, not inspired by Mesopotamia.

3. Characteristics & Material Culture

  • Technology & Materials (Bronze Age Society)
    • Metals Used: Copper (first metal used), gold, silver, brass.
    • Not Known: Iron (Iron Age began in India ~1000 BC).
    • Earliest evidence of silver in India comes from this culture.
  • Script & Knowledge
    • Used an undeciphered pictographic script.
    • Lacked knowledge of iron and defensive arrows.
  • Pottery & Art
    • Well-made, strong, typically red in colour, often with red-and-black painted designs.
    • Terracotta art and seals depict animals like the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, deer, and sheep (not lion).
  • Urban Planning & Infrastructure
    • Grid-pattern city layout.
    • Widespread use of burnt bricks.
    • Advanced drainage systems.
    • No great palaces or temples were discovered.

4. Economy & Trade

  • Base: Agrarian economy.
  • Innovations:
    • Earliest evidence of cotton cultivation and textile manufacturing in India (~3000 BC).
  • Trade & Commerce:
    • Significant trading centre with advanced trade and commerce.
    • Over 3000 seals (often used in trade) are a key archaeological find.
  • Ports:
    • Lothal was a major port city.
    • Other ports: Surkotada, Kuntasi, Balakot, Allahdino.

5. Religion & Beliefs

  • Nature: Predominantly secular; religious element present but not dominant.
  • Deities:
    • Worship of a Mother Goddess.
    • Worship of a male deity (Pashupati/Shiva), indicated by the Pashupati seal (depicting a three-faced god in a yogic posture) and cylindrical stones resembling Lingams.
    • Worship of plants, trees, and animals.
  • Practices:
    • Evidence of fire altars and a developing sacrificial tradition (Kalibangan).
    • Evidence of beliefs in spirits and possible rituals and sacrifice.
    • The beginning of idol worship in India is traced to this Pre-Aryan period.

6. Key Harappan Sites & Findings

  • Pakistan:
    • Harappa (Ravi River): First discovered site; Cemetery R-37.
    • Mohenjodaro (Sindh): “City of wells”; Great Bath; ‘Dancing Girl’ statue; humped bull seal.
    • Chanhudaro (Sindh): Bead-making factory.
  • India:
    • Gujarat:
      • Lothal (Bhogava River): Dockyard; port city; ivory scale; evidence of double/triple burials.
      • Dholavira: Second largest site in India; advanced water harvesting system; rock-cut architecture; inscription of ten large-sized signs; three-part division (citadel, middle town, lower town).
    • Rajasthan:
      • Kalibangan (Ghaggar River): Earliest ploughed field; fire altars; terracotta cake of a horned deity; double burials.
    • Haryana:
      • Banawali (Ghaggar Valley): Terracotta replica of a plough.
      • Rakhigarhi (Hisar District): Largest Harappan site in India (350 hectares).
    • Punjab: Ropar (Sutlej River).
    • Uttar Pradesh: Alamgirpur, Hulas, Sonauli (125 human burials).
    • Maharashtra: Daimabad.
    • Jammu and Kashmir: Manda.
  • Other Important Sites: Rangpur (Saurashtra), Padri (Gujrat), Surkotada, Balu (Haryana), Dadheri (Punjab).
  • Non-Harappan Sites:
    • Pataliputra: Major city in the later Mahajanapada period.
    • Sohgaura: Known for a Mauryan-era copper plate inscription.

7. Animals in Harappan Culture

  • Depicted on Seals: Humped bull (most common), elephant, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat, sheep.
  • Absent or Debated:
    • Horse: Not depicted on seals; its presence is debated. At Surkotada site, horse remains, specifically bones dating from the Mature Harappan period were found.
    • Lion: Remains not discovered at any site.
    • Cow: Known but not represented in terracotta art or on seals.

8. Contrast with Vedic Culture

  • Indus Valley: Non-Aryan, urban, pictographic script (undeciphered), no iron, evidence of idol worship (Mother Goddess, Pashupati), red-and-black pottery.
  • Vedic Culture: Aryan, rural, script is understood, iron weapons, grey pottery.

9. Decline & Chronology

  • Cause of Decline: A study suggests a fall due to continuous low rainfall (drought) for 900 years.
  • Current Status: Mohenjodaro and Harappa are now dead (non-inhabited) archaeological sites.
  • Technological Chronology in India:
    1. Urban Culture (Indus Valley Civilization)
    2. Iron Plough (Vedic Period, ~1000 BC)
    3. Punch-marked silver coins (6th Century BC)
    4. Gold coins (Introduced by Indo-Greek rulers in 2nd Century BC)

10. Appendix: Mesoamerican Civilizations (North-South Sequence)

  • Aztec (Northern Mexico) → Maya (Guatemala) → Muisca (Colombia) → Inca (Peru)

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