South India (Chola, Chalukya, Pallava and Sangam Period) Notes with PDF

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The Chola Dynasty (c. 9th – 13th Century CE)

Founders and Early Rulers

• Founder: Vijayalaya (laid the foundation in the 9th century A.D.)
• Prominent Rulers:
  • Rajaraja Chola I:
    • Started the Chola naval army.
    • Built the famous Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur.
    • Conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka.
  • Rajendra I:
    • Credited with making the Bay of Bengal a ‘Chola Lake’.
    • Founded the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram and built its temple.
    • Built a huge artificial lake known as Chola Gangam.
  • Kulottunga I:
    • Gave complete freedom to Sri Lanka and married his daughter to a Sinhala prince.
    • Sent a delegation of 72 traders to China, indicating active trade relations.
    • Sent ministers to suppress cruelty against animals in the Kashi region.

Territory and Expansion

• Geographical Heartland: Coromandel Coast and some regions of the Deccan.
• Capital Cities:
  • Tanjore (Thanjavur) – Initial capital.
  • Gangaikonda Cholapuram – Founded by Rajendra I.
• Military Campaigns and Power:
  • Defeated the Pandya and Chera rulers.
  • Conquered Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
  • Sent a naval expedition against the Sailendra empire of South East Asia and conquered some areas.
  • Famous for its naval power.

Administration

• Famous Feature: Elaborated local self-government and efficient rural administration.
• Administrative Structure:
  • The empire was divided into Mandalam (provinces).
  • A special feature was the autonomy of village administration.
• Village Assemblies (Sabhas):
  • The era is renowned for its well-organized Village Assemblies.
  • Detailed information comes from inscriptions at Uttaramerur.
• Administrative Committees (Variyam):
  • The administration involved various committees called Variyam.
  • Thotta Variyam: Looked after garden administration.
  • Eripatti: Land whose revenue was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank.
• Historical Records: More information is available because the Cholas inscribed historical narratives of their victories on temple walls.

Art, Architecture, and Culture

• Temples (Chronological Order):
  1. Sapt Pagoda / Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram (Pallava period)
  2. Brihadishwara Temple, Thanjavur (Rajaraja I, Chola period)
  3. Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (Rajendra I, Chola period)
• Sculpture:
  • Most famous for Bronze sculptures.
  • The Bronze image of Nataraja (Shiva as the lord of dance) is considered the world’s greatest iconographical creation from this period.
    • Icons show Nataraja with four hands.
  • The ‘Dakshinamurti’ idol depicts Shiva in the form of a teacher.
  • The Brihadeeswara Temple has a massive statue of Nandi, considered the biggest in India.
• Education: Ghatikas were colleges generally attached to the temples.

Other Major South Indian Dynasties

The Chalukya Dynasty

• Greatest King: Pulakeshin II.
• Capital: Vatapi (modern-day Badami).
• Administration:
  • Noted for frequently assigning high-ranking administrative positions to women.
  • Kings declared their successor during their own tenure.
• Architecture: Known for the rock-cut temples at Badami.
• Records: The Aihole Inscription of Pulakeshin II contains a mention of the Sanskrit poet Kalidasa.
• Chinese Account: The traveler Hiuen-Tsang gave an account of China-India relations during their reign.
• Territory: The Chalukyas did not rule over North India.

The Pallava Dynasty

• Capital: Kanchipuram (Kanchi).
• Rulers (Chronological Order): Mahendravarman I -> Narsinghvarman I -> Parmeshvaravarman I -> Nandivarman II.
• Notable Events:
  • Narasimha Varman I (Narsinghvarman I) sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 642 AD.
  • Nandivarman Pallava Malla was elected directly by the public.
• Architecture: Known for the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi.

The Pandya Dynasty

• Sangam Age Capital: Madurai.
• Lifeline: The river Vengi.
• Early Diplomacy: Sent an ambassador to the Roman kingdom in 26 B.C.
• Architecture: The Meenakshi Temple is located in Madurai.

Other Dynasties

• Kadamba Dynasty: Capital at Vanavasi.
• Hoyasala Dynasty: Capital at Dwarasamudra.
• Yadava: Capital at Devagiri.
• Kakatiya: Capital at Warangal.
• Chandela: Known for the Khajuraho temples.

Sangam Age (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE)

Major Dynasties

• The three main ruling dynasties were the Chera, Chola, and Pandya.
• The Kadamb and Pallava dynasties are not mentioned as contemporary powers in Sangam literature.

Sangam Literature & Tamil Texts

• Tolkappiyam: The earliest surviving work of Tamil grammar and poetry.
• Silappadikaram: Authored by Ilango; primarily a love story with merchant elements.
• Manimekalai: A sequel to Silappadikaram, containing a merchant story.
• Thirukural (Kural): A classic Tamil text on philosophy and ethics; called the ‘Laghuveda’.
• Thirumurai: Collection of Saivite saints’ writings; considered the Fifth Veda.
• Tamil Ramayanam (Ramavataram): Authored by Kamban.
• Third Sangam: Held at Madurai.
• Siddhas (Sittars): Medieval Tamil monotheists who condemned idolatry.

Administration, Trade, and Geography

• Kingly Titles: Kon, Ko, and Mannan were attributed to the King.
• Trade Centers:
  • Uraiyur: Famous for the cotton trade.
  • Ports on the Western Coast: Tondi and Mushiri.
• Sage Agastya is credited with Aryanising South India.

Trade and Economy in Ancient South India

Indo-Roman Trade

• Major Port: Arikamedu (known as ‘Poduke’ in Periplus of the Erythrean Sea).
  • Excavations show brisk trade with Rome.
  • A Roman settlement has been found here.
• Trade Goods:
  • Yavanapriya was the term for pepper, a major export.
  • Amphora Jar: A tall double-handle jar used by Romans to transport goods like wine and olive oil to India.

Trade Institutions

• Nagaram: An institution associated with trade.
• Manigrama (Manigramam): A corporation of merchants involved in foreign trade.
• Nanadesis: A guild involved in foreign trade.
• Sreni: A general term for a guild or association of merchants or artisans.
• Important Trade Center: Tagara was on the route connecting Kalyana with Vengi.

Miscellaneous Terms and Chronology

Administrative and Land Terms

• Taniyurs: Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins.

Languages

• Halbi: Related to the Aryan language family.

Chronology of Dynastic Rise

The correct chronological order from earliest to latest is:

1. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I.
2. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala.
3. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja.
4. Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka I.

Other Historical Figures & Events

• Kuruspal Inscription: Provides information about King Mahashivgupta Balarjun.
• Lingayats: A Medieval Kannada group that questioned the theory of rebirth and rejected the caste hierarchy.
• Chalukya King Kumarapala also sent ministers to suppress cruelty against animals.
• The Chola dynasty was eventually devastated by Malik Kafur.
• The famous Battle of Takkolam was fought between the Cholas and the Rashtrakutas.

Know More about South India (Chola, Chalukya, Pallava and Sangam Period):

• South India (Chola, Chalukya, Pallava and Sangam Period) One Liner Questions & Answers
• South India (Chola, Chalukya, Pallava and Sangam Period) – Old Year Questions and Answers