Chemistry – Miscellaneous Notes with PDF

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Scientific Awards & Recognitions

Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2019
- Awarded for the development of lithium-ion batteries.

Chemistry & Properties of Materials

Types of Glass
- Crookes glass: A type of glass that can cut off ultraviolet rays.
Fireproofing Agents
- Aluminium Sulphate: A compound used to make fireproof clothing.
Synthetic Materials
- Kevlar: A synthetic fiber.
- Carbon Fibre: Used in aircraft manufacturing.
- Neoprene: A type of synthetic rubber.
Nanotechnology
- Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs): First prepared by scientist Iijima.

Environmental Chemistry

Ozone Layer Depletion
- The ozone layer is destroyed by Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
- Dichlorodifluoromethane is a type of CFC used in refrigerators.
Ozone Properties
- Kills microorganisms in water.
- It is not radioactive.
Global Warming & Greenhouse Gases
- Relative contribution to global warming: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) > Methane (CH₄) > Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) > CFCs.
- Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): A primary greenhouse gas.
- One carbon credit is equivalent to 1000 kg of CO₂.
- Geoengineering Techniques suggested to reduce global warming:
  - Cirrus cloud thinning technique.
  - Injection of sulphate aerosol into the stratosphere.
Artificial Rain & Weather Modification
- Silver Iodide is used for making artificial clouds and inducing artificial rain.
- The amount of rain depends on humidity in the atmosphere.

Safety & Hazard Control

Fire Extinguishers
- Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the commonly used gas.
- In ordinary fire extinguishers, CO₂ is generated by the reaction of sodium bicarbonate and dilute sulphuric acid.
- Carbon Tetrachloride was historically used in fire extinguishers.
Fire Alarms
- A photocell is a device used in fire alarms.
Poisons & Rodenticides
- Rodenticide: A chemical used to control rodents.
- Zinc Phosphide: Used as rat poison.
- Potassium Cyanide: Used for making rat poison.
- Aluminium Phosphide: Used as a fumigant and rodenticide.

Pesticides and Repellents

Mosquito Repellents
- Active chemicals: Allethrin, Prallethrin, Pyrethrum.
- Pyrethrin (used in mosquito coils) is obtained from a seed plant (e.g., Chrysanthemum).
- Lemongrass is a natural plant used in repellents.
Agricultural Pesticides & Insecticides
- Chemicals viewed with apprehension due to toxicity: carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate, triazophos.
- Pyrethrum and Rotenone are used as insecticides.
- Benzene hexachloride (BHC) is an insecticide.
Herbicides & Weedicides
- Herbicide: A chemical used to kill unwanted plants (weeds).
- Sodium chlorate: A herbicide.
- 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid): Common weedicide for paddy fields.
- Agent Orange: A herbicide/defoliant used in the Vietnam War, containing the harmful substance Dioxin, which caused cancers, miscarriages, and birth defects.
Fungicides
- Blue Vitriol (Copper Sulfate) is used as a fungicide.

Radioactive Dating & Isotopes

Carbon Dating
- Carbon-14 (C-14 or ⁶C¹⁴) is used for radioactive dating of archaeological samples like firewood, bone, and shell to determine the age of fossils.
Other Dating Methods
- The age of the Earth and rocks is measured using the Uranium-238 dating process.
- Radioactive dating is a technique to measure the age of rocks.
Government Organizations
- BRIT (Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology) in India is engaged with Isotope Technology.

Chemicals and Their Uses

Metals and Applications
- Iron: Key component of Haemoglobin.
- Copper: Used in lightning conductors.
- Lead: Used in storage batteries. Can be an unwanted chemical in lipstick.
- Silver: Used in photography (Silver bromide).
- Zinc: Used for galvanization (protecting iron from rusting). Its oxide is known as Philosopher’s wool.
- Titanium: Known as the ‘metal of the future’.
- Mercury: Its sulphide (Mercuric Sulphide) is Vermillion.
- German Silver: An alloy (contains no silver).
- Uranium: Used in atom bombs.
- Tetraethyl lead: Used as an anti-knocking agent in petrol.
Non-Metals and Compounds
- Silver Bromide: Used in photography.
- Lithium Salts: Lithium bicarbonate treats rheumatism.
- Magnesium Hydroxide (Milk of Magnesia): Used as an antacid.
- Sodium Chromate: Supplies a red colour.
- Hydrochloric Acid: Used in lead-acid accumulator cells.
- Nitrocellulose: An explosive.
- Taxol: An anticancer drug.
- Eosin: A dye used in making red ink.
- Freon: Used as a refrigerant.
- Aspartame: An artificial sweetener.
- Benadryl: An anti-histamine drug.
- Morphine: Used as an analgesic (painkiller).
- Potassium Compounds:
  - Potassium bromide: Used in photography.
  - Potassium nitrate: Used in gunpowder and as a fertilizer.
  - Potassium sulphate: Used as a fertilizer.
  - Monopotassium tartrate: Used in baking powder.
- Phosphorus:
  - Red Phosphorus: Used for manufacturing safety matches.
  - White Phosphorus: Glows spontaneously in air and darkness (chemiluminescence).
- Silicon Carbide: Used for making artificial diamonds.
Household & Medical Products
- Acetone: Used as a nail polish remover.
- Hydrogen Peroxide: Used as an antiseptic for wounds.
- Liquid Ammonia: Used as a refrigerant.
- Boric Acid: Used as an antiseptic.
- Phenyl: A household germicide (phenol derivative).
- Dry Washing: Can be done using Petrol, Benzene, or Alcohol.

Batteries & Electrolytes

Dry Cells
- Electrolytes: Ammonium Chloride (primary) and Zinc Chloride.
- The reaction is not reversible, so it cannot be recharged.
- Energy conversion: Chemical energy to electrical energy.
Car Batteries (Lead-Acid)
- Electrolyte: Sulphuric Acid.
- Electrodes: Lead peroxide and Lead.
Rechargeable Batteries
- Nickel and Cadmium serve as electrodes in batteries for devices like torches and electric shavers.

Soil Science

Soil Reclamation
- Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum) acts as a reclamation agent for alkaline soil.
Terminology
- Edaphic: A term relating to or concerning soil.

Chemical Warfare

Chemical Weapons
- Mustard gas and Phosgene were used in WWI.
- Mustard gas is a liquid at room temperature.
Smoke Screens
- Consist of fine particles of Titanium Oxide dispersed in air.
Conventions
- The Hague Convention deals with biological and chemical weapons.

Atmospheric Science & Pollution

Air Pollution
- Pollutants:
  - Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂): Main pollutants in metropolitan cities. Produced by incomplete burning of petrol/diesel.
  - Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur: Cause smog.
  - Hydrogen Sulphide: An inorganic gaseous pollutant from decaying vegetation/animal matter.
  - Mercury: Toxic pollutant from pesticides, dental amalgam, fluorescent lamps, and coal power plants.
  - Magnetic particles: From vehicle brakes/engines and power plants, suspected to cause neurodegenerative problems.
  - Sulphur Dioxide: Causes acid rain.
  - Fluoride pollution: Not related to the Bhopal gas tragedy (which was caused by Methyl isocyanate).
- Particulate Matter (PM):
  - An air pollutant and solid residue.
  - Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM): Particles sized less than 5 micrometers (µm).
- Government Monitoring (India’s NAMP) monitors:
  - Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂)
  - Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)
  - Suspended Particulate Matter (PM10)
  - Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
Noise Pollution
- Measured in Decibels (dB).
- ‘Green Mover’ is a term used in combating noise pollution.
Other Effects
- Ultraviolet (UV) Light: Causes skin cancer (linked to ozone depletion).
- Harnessing nuclear energy often causes thermal pollution.

Water Pollution & Technology

Eutrophication
- Nutrient enrichment of a water body from high amounts of nitrogenous nutrients and orthophosphates.
- Leads to enhanced growth of algae (algal blooms).
- Depletes dissolved oxygen in the water.
Measurement
- Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): A standard criterion for pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems.
Causes
- Physico-chemical characteristics of water sources change due to effluents.
Water Technology
- Desalination in India: The first plant based on low-temperature thermal desalination was commissioned in Kavaratti, Lakshadweep.

Topic 13: Waste Management

Waste-to-Energy Technologies
- Processes include ‘pyrolysis’ and ‘plasma gasification’.

Food & Consumer Products

Contaminants
- Brominated vegetable oils are found in some soft drinks.
- Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is common in Chinese fast food.

Physics & Technology

Electronics
- A Magnetron tube is used in a microwave oven.
Scientific Terms
- Cryogenics: The technology of producing and using very low temperatures.
- Nuclear Fission: The breaking apart of an atomic nucleus (Fusion is the combining of nuclei).
- Anti-matter: Creation of anti-helium nucleus helps probe the possibility of anti-matter stars/galaxies and understand the evolution of the universe.
Inventions and Discoveries
- Rutherford: Discovered the atomic nucleus.
- Alfred Nobel: Invented dynamite.
- Cartwright: Invented the powerloom.
- Graham Bell: Invented the telephone.

Everyday Science

The pungent smell near urinals is due to Ammonia.

Policies, Conventions & Important Days

Policies
- Brazil made it mandatory to blend ethanol with gasoline.
- The Under2 Coalition is an international climate change agreement.
Conventions
- UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change): Deals with greenhouse gas emissions.
- Talanoa Dialogue: An international dialogue on global climate change.
- Alma-Ata Declaration: Related to healthcare.
International Years
- 2011 was designated by the UN as The International Year of Chemistry.
Important Days
- Technology Day: 11th May
- Photography Day: 19th August
- National Sports Day (India): 29th August (Major Dhyan Chand’s birthday)
- Nagasaki Day: 9th August

Correctly Matched Pairs

Silver Iodide → Artificial Rain
Zinc Phosphide → Rat Poison
Blue Vitriol → Fungicide
Eosin → Red Ink
Kevlar → Synthetic Fiber
Taxol → Anticancer Drug
Nitrocellulose → Explosive
Ozone depletion → Skin cancer

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