Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization Notes with PDF

By IASbook Team October 4, 2025 Educational Resources 0 Comments

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Human Society & Civilization
- Human society is considered unique due to its dependence on the economy, which is a major determinant of social change.
Classification of Historical Ages
- Proto-historic Age: A period where writing was known but remains undeciphered.
- The Indus Valley Civilization is classified as Proto-historic for this reason.
Comparative Classification of Indian Societies
- Indus Valley Civilization: Urban
- Rigvedic Society: Pastoral
- Later Vedic Society: Agrarian
- Medieval Period: Landlordism
Global Context
- One of the three oldest ancient civilizations, alongside Egypt (Nile River) and Mesopotamia.
- Sumerian (Mesopotamian) civilization was the first to develop a proper writing system (cuneiform).

Discovery
- First evidence discovered at Harappa, hence the name Harappan Civilization.
- Primary source of knowledge is archaeological excavations.
- Alexander Cunningham first excavated Harappa (1853, 1856) but failed to recognize its significance.
- Major excavations were overseen by Sir John Marshall (Director-General of ASI).
Key Archaeologists & Their Sites
- Daya Ram Sahni: Excavated Harappa (1921-1925).
- Rakhal Das Banerjee: Excavated Mohenjodaro (1922).
- E.J.H. Mackay: Excavated Chanhudaro (1935-36), discovered a bead-making factory.
- S.R. Rao: Discovered and excavated Lothal (1954).
- R.S. Bisht: Excavated Dholavira.
- N.G. Majumdar: Worked at Chanhudaro and Kaushambi.
- B.B. Lal: Excavated Hastinapur.
- J.P. Joshi: Discovered Surkotada.
- Not Associated: V.A. Smith (a historian, not an excavator).
Precursor Site
- Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) provides the earliest evidence of animal domestication and agriculture in the subcontinent.
Theories of Origin
- E.J.H. Mackay & Mortimer Wheeler: Supported theory of migration from Sumer/Western Asia.
- Amalananda Ghosh & M. Rafique Mughal: Argued for indigenous development from Pre-Harappan cultures in the Ravi river region, not inspired by Mesopotamia.

Technology & Materials (Bronze Age Society)
- Metals Used: Copper (first metal used), gold, silver, brass.
- Not Known: Iron (Iron Age began in India ~1000 BC).
- Earliest evidence of silver in India comes from this culture.
Script & Knowledge
- Used an undeciphered pictographic script.
- Lacked knowledge of iron and defensive arrows.
Pottery & Art
- Well-made, strong, typically red in colour, often with red-and-black painted designs.
- Terracotta art and seals depict animals like the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, deer, and sheep (not lion).
Urban Planning & Infrastructure
- Grid-pattern city layout.
- Widespread use of burnt bricks.
- Advanced drainage systems.
- No great palaces or temples were discovered.

Base: Agrarian economy.
Innovations:
- Earliest evidence of cotton cultivation and textile manufacturing in India (~3000 BC).
Trade & Commerce:
- Significant trading centre with advanced trade and commerce.
- Over 3000 seals (often used in trade) are a key archaeological find.
Ports:
- Lothal was a major port city.
- Other ports: Surkotada, Kuntasi, Balakot, Allahdino.

Nature: Predominantly secular; religious element present but not dominant.
Deities:
- Worship of a Mother Goddess.
- Worship of a male deity (Pashupati/Shiva), indicated by the Pashupati seal (depicting a three-faced god in a yogic posture) and cylindrical stones resembling Lingams.
- Worship of plants, trees, and animals.
Practices:
- Evidence of fire altars and a developing sacrificial tradition (Kalibangan).
- Evidence of beliefs in spirits and possible rituals and sacrifice.
- The beginning of idol worship in India is traced to this Pre-Aryan period.

Pakistan:
- Harappa (Ravi River): First discovered site; Cemetery R-37.
- Mohenjodaro (Sindh): “City of wells“; Great Bath; ‘Dancing Girl’ statue; humped bull seal.
- Chanhudaro (Sindh): Bead-making factory.
India:
- Gujarat:
  - Lothal (Bhogava River): Dockyard; port city; ivory scale; evidence of double/triple burials.
  - Dholavira: Second largest site in India; advanced water harvesting system; rock-cut architecture; inscription of ten large-sized signs; three-part division (citadel, middle town, lower town).
- Rajasthan:
  - Kalibangan (Ghaggar River): Earliest ploughed field; fire altars; terracotta cake of a horned deity; double burials.
- Haryana:
  - Banawali (Ghaggar Valley): Terracotta replica of a plough.
  - Rakhigarhi (Hisar District): Largest Harappan site in India (350 hectares).
- Punjab: Ropar (Sutlej River).
- Uttar Pradesh: Alamgirpur, Hulas, Sonauli (125 human burials).
- Maharashtra: Daimabad.
- Jammu and Kashmir: Manda.
Other Important Sites: Rangpur (Saurashtra), Padri (Gujrat), Surkotada, Balu (Haryana), Dadheri (Punjab).
Non-Harappan Sites:
- Pataliputra: Major city in the later Mahajanapada period.
- Sohgaura: Known for a Mauryan-era copper plate inscription.

Depicted on Seals: Humped bull (most common), elephant, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat, sheep.
Absent or Debated:
- Horse: Not depicted on seals; its presence is debated. At Surkotada site, horse remains, specifically bones dating from the Mature Harappan period were found.
- Lion: Remains not discovered at any site.
- Cow: Known but not represented in terracotta art or on seals.

Indus Valley: Non-Aryan, urban, pictographic script (undeciphered), no iron, evidence of idol worship (Mother Goddess, Pashupati), red-and-black pottery.
Vedic Culture: Aryan, rural, script is understood, iron weapons, grey pottery.

Cause of Decline: A study suggests a fall due to continuous low rainfall (drought) for 900 years.
Current Status: Mohenjodaro and Harappa are now dead (non-inhabited) archaeological sites.
Technological Chronology in India:
1. Urban Culture (Indus Valley Civilization)
2. Iron Plough (Vedic Period, ~1000 BC)
3. Punch-marked silver coins (6th Century BC)
4. Gold coins (Introduced by Indo-Greek rulers in 2nd Century BC)